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Gas phase particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) move around freely in the absence of an applied electric field.

Gas is one of the three classical states of matter (the others being liquid and solid). Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point (see phase change), boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms from within the gas. A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas or atomic gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image.

The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states,^[1] the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases^[2] which are gaining increased attention these days.^[3] High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter.

Etymology[link]

The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th century Flemish chemist J.B. Van Helmont. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Greek word Chaos – the g in Dutch being pronounced like the English ch – in which case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like "ultra-rarefied water".^[4]

Physical characteristics[link]

Drifting smoke particles provide clues to the movement of the surrounding gas.

As most gases are difficult to observe directly with our senses, they are described through the use of four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics: pressure, volume, number of particles (chemists group them by moles) and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below).

Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and as such are not as strongly intermolecularly bonded to the same degree as liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between each gas particle. Like charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain permanently charged ions are known as plasmas. Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the molecule while the compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly-induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas.^[5][6] A quick comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion.^[7] The drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior.

Compared to the other states of matter, gases have an incredibly low density and viscosity. Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as compressibility. This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive indices. Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container.

Macroscopic[link]

Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase.

When observing a gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale. A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles within the region. By way of contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view.

From this global vantage point, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). By way of example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury, thereby locking the number of particles and temperature. He observed that when the pressure was increased on the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas volume decreased. Mathematicians describe this situation as an inverse relationship. Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the product (math) was always the same, a constant. This relationship held true for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field of study.

There are many math tools to choose from when analyzing gas properties. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, the math tools become a bit more complex, from the Euler equations (inviscid flow) to the Navier-Stokes equations^[8] that fully account for viscous effects. These equations are tailored to meet the unique conditions of the gas system in question. Boyle's lab equipment allowed the use of algebra to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal" manner. These ideal relationships enable safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. The high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. This advanced math, to include statistics and multivariable calculus, makes possible the solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. One such example might be the analysis of the image depicting space shuttle reentry to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are not exceeded. It is safe to say that in this flight regime, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.

Pressure[link]

Pressurized gases.

The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is "p" or "P" with SI units of pascals.

When describing a container of gas, the term pressure (or absolute pressure) refers to the average force the gas exerts on the surface area of the container. Within this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top of the article). The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of the particle. As a reminder from classical mechanics, momentum, by definition, is the product of mass and velocity.^[9] Notice that during a collision only the normal component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall never changes its momentum. So the average force on a surface must be the average change in linear momentum from all of these gas particle collisions. To be more precise, pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall. The image "Pressurized gases" depicts gas pressure and temperature spikes used in the entertainment industry.

Temperature[link]

Air balloon shrinks after submerging into liquid nitrogen

The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins.

The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of the particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system.^[10] In statistical mechanics, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a particle. The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the degrees of freedom of the particle itself (energy modes). Kinetic energy added (endothermic process) to gas particles by way of collisions produces linear, rotational, and vibrational motion as well. By contrast, a molecule in a solid can only increase its vibration modes with the addition of heat as the lattice crystal structure prevents both linear and rotational motions. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range which constantly varies due to constant collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Use of this distribution implies ideal gases near thermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered.

Specific volume[link]

Expanding gases link to changes in specific volume.

The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is "v" with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram.

The symbol used to represent volume in equations is "V" with SI units of cubic meters.

When performing a thermodynamic analysis, it is typical to speak of intensive and extensive properties. Properties which depend on the amount of gas (either by mass or volume) are called extensive properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a unit of mass of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium.^[11] 1000 atoms of protactinium as a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases. When the seat ejection is initiated in the rocket sled image the specific volume increases with the expanding gases, while mass is conserved. Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed, volume is an extensive property.

Density[link]

The symbol used to represent density in equations is ρ (pronounced rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the reciprocal of specific volume.

Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the mass per volume of a substance or simply, the inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume or both. This variation of density is referred to as compressibility. Like pressure and temperature, density is a state variable of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a static gas, the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a scalar quantity; it is a simple physical quantity that has a magnitude but no direction associated with it. It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density decreases as the volume increases.

Microscopic[link]

If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion. These neutral gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or the sides of the container. By stipulating that these collisions are perfectly elastic, this substance is transformed from a real to an ideal gas. This particle or microscopic view of a gas is described by the Kinetic-molecular theory. All of the assumptions behind this theory can be found in the postulates section of Kinetic Theory.

Kinetic theory[link]

Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions of momentum and kinetic energy,^[12] one can use the conservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macro system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties.

The theory also explains how the gas system responds to change. For example, as a gas is heated from absolute zero, when it is (in theory) perfectly still, its internal energy (temperature) is increased. As a gas is heated, the particles speed up and its temperature rise. This results in greater numbers of collisions with the container sides each second due to the higher particle speeds associated with elevated temperatures. As the number of collisions (per unit time) increase on the surface area of the container, the pressure increases in a proportional manner.

Brownian motion[link]

Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles, illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases (entropy). These events are also described by particle theory.

Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions as to how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian Motion. The reason is that Brownian Motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule was examined.

Intermolecular forces[link]

When gases are compressed, intermolecular forces like those shown here start to play a more active role.

As discussed earlier, momentary attractions (or repulsions) between particles have an effect on gas dynamics. In physical chemistry, the name given to these intermolecular forces is van der Waals force. These forces play a key role in determining physical properties of a gas such as viscosity and flow rate (see physical characteristics section). Ignoring these forces in certain conditions (see Kinetic-molecular theory) allows a real gas to be treated like an ideal gas. This assumption allows the use of ideal gas laws which greatly simplifies the path to a solution.

Proper use of these gas relationships requires us to take one more look at the Kinetic-molecular theory (KMT). When these gas particles possess a magnetic charge or Intermolecular force they gradually influence one another as the spacing between them is reduced (the hydrogen bond model illustrates one example). In the absence of any charge, at some point when the spacing between gas particles is greatly reduced they can no longer avoid collisions between themselves at normal gas temperatures found in a lab. Another case for increased collisions among gas particles would include a fixed volume of gas, which upon heating would contain very fast particles. What this means to us is that these ideal equations provide reasonable results except for extremely high pressure [compressible] or high temperature [ionized] conditions. Notice that all of these excepted conditions allow energy transfer to take place within the gas system. The absence of these internal transfers is what is referred to as ideal conditions (perfect – or well behaved) in which the energy exchange occurs only at the boundaries of the system. Real gases experience some of these collisions and intermolecular forces. When these collisions are statistically negligible [incompressible], results from these ideal equations are still valid. At the other end of the spectrum, when the gas particles are compressed into close proximity they behave more like a liquid, and hence another connection to fluid dynamics.

Simplified models[link]

An equation of state (for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system.^[13] Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies. The image of first powered flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina illustrates one example on the successful application of these relationships in 1903. More recent examples include the 2009 maiden flights of the first solar powered aircraft, the Solar Impulse, and the first commercial airliner to be constructed primarily from composite materials, the Dreamliner.

First flight at Kitty Hawk, NC.

Ideal and perfect gas models[link]

The equation of state for an ideal or perfect gas is the ideal gas law and reads

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): PV=nRT,

where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is amount of gas (in mol units), R is the universal gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol K), and T is the temperature. Written this way, it is sometimes called the "chemist's version", since it emphasizes the number of molecules n. It can also be written as

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): PV=\rho R_s T,

where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): R_s

is the specific gas constant for a particular gas, in units J/(kg K). This notation is the "gas dynamicist's" version, which is more practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions.

The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the specific heat of a gas. In the most general case, the specific heat is a function of both temperature and pressure. If the pressure-dependence is neglected (and possibly the temperature-dependence as well) in a particular application, sometimes the gas is said to be a perfect gas, although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science.

For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat. An ideal gas is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that the compressibility factor Z is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the ideal gas law.

This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside a combustion chamber of a jet engine.^[14] It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating emissions.

Real gas[link]

21 April 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt, Alaska, illustrating real gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with pressure rises, the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At the upper end of the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections – 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to a greater number of particles (transition from gas to plasma).^[15] Finally, all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different thermodynamic processes by adjusting the equation to read pVⁿ = constant and then varying the n through different values such as the specific heat ratio, γ.

Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior:

• Compressibility effects (Z allowed to vary from 1.0)
• Variable heat capacity (specific heats vary with temperature)
• Van der Waals forces (related to compressibility, can substitute other equations of state)
• Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects
• Issues with molecular dissociation and elementary reactions with variable composition.

For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where "Real Gas effects" would have a significant impact would be on the Space Shuttle re-entry where extremely high temperatures and pressures are present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt.

Historical synthesis[link]

Boyle's law[link]

Boyle's equipment.

Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662 Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure.^[16] The image of Boyle's Equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases.

• Boyle's Law – describes a gas in which the number of particles and Temperature are constant.
• PV = constant in this situation constant = nRT from the ideal gas law.

Law of volumes[link]

In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer, Jacques Charles, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval.

In 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar, though more extensive experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature. Gay-Lussac credited Charle's earlier work by naming the law in his honor. In the absence of this linkage, Dalton could have been in contention for this honor for his previously published work on partial pressures.

• Law of Volumes – Both Charles and Gay-Lussac played a role in developing this relationship.^[17]
• V/T = constant – notice that constant = nR/P from the ideal gas law.

Avogadro's law[link]

Dalton's notation.

In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles. His theory was not generally accepted until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions. For his work with gases a century prior, the number that bears his name Avogadro's constant represents the number of atoms found in 12 grams of elemental carbon-12 (6.022×10²³ mol⁻¹). This specific number of gas particles, at standard temperature and pressure (ideal gas law) occupies 22.40 liters, which is referred to as the molar volume.

• Avogadro's Law – describes a gas in a container in which the pressure and temperature are constant. The simplified form for the ideal gas law follows:
• V/n = constant – notice that constant = RT/P from the ideal gas law.

Dalton's law[link]

In 1801, John Dalton published the Law of Partial Pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship: The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for n species as:

Pressure_total = Pressure₁ + Pressure₂ + ... + Pressure_n

The image of Dalton's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed. Among his key journal observations upon mixing unreactive "elastic fluids" (gases) were the following.^[18]:

• Unlike liquids, heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing.
• Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure (they behaved as if their size was negligible).

Special topics[link]

Compressibility[link]

Compressibility factors for air.

Thermodynamicists use this factor (Z) to alter the ideal gas equation to account for compressibility effects of real gases. This factor represents the ratio of actual to ideal specific volumes. It is sometimes referred to as a "fudge-factor" or correction to expand the useful range of the ideal gas law for design purposes. Usually this Z value is very close to unity. The compressibility factor image illustrates how Z varies over a range of very cold temperatures.

Reynolds number[link]

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (v_sρ) to viscous forces (μ/L). It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. As such, the Reynolds number provides the link between modeling results (design) and the full-scale actual conditions. It can also be used to characterize the flow.

Viscosity[link]

Satellite view of weather pattern in vicinity of Robinson Crusoe Islands on 15 September 1999, shows a unique turbulent cloud pattern called a Kármán vortex street

Viscosity, a physical property, is a measure of how well adjacent molecules stick to one another. A solid can withstand a shearing force due to the strength of these sticky intermolecular forces. A fluid will continuously deform when subjected to a similar load. While a gas has a lower value of viscosity than a liquid, it is still an observable property. If gases had no viscosity, then they would not stick to the surface of a wing and form a boundary layer. A study of the delta wing in the Schlieren image reveals that the gas particles stick to one another (see Boundary layer section).

Turbulence[link]

Delta wing in wind tunnel. The shadows form as the indices of refraction change within the gas as it compresses on the leading edge of this wing.

In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. The Satellite view of weather around Robinson Crusoe Islands illustrates just one example.

Boundary layer[link]

Particles will, in effect, "stick" to the surface of an object moving through it. This layer of particles is called the boundary layer. At the surface of the object, it is essentially static due to the friction of the surface. The object, with its boundary layer is effectively the new shape of the object that the rest of the molecules "see" as the object approaches. This boundary layer can separate from the surface, essentially creating a new surface and completely changing the flow path. The classical example of this is a stalling airfoil. The delta wing image clearly shows the boundary layer thickening as the gas flows from right to left along the leading edge.

Maximum entropy principle[link]

As the total number of degrees of freedom approaches infinity, the system will be found in the macrostate that corresponds to the highest multiplicity. In order to illustrate this principle, observe the skin temperature of a frozen metal bar. Using a thermal image of the skin temperature, note the temperature distribution on the surface. This initial observation of temperature represents a "microstate." At some future time, a second observation of the skin temperature produces a second microstate. By continuing this observation process, it is possible to produce a series of microstates that illustrate the thermal history of the bar's surface. Characterization of this historical series of microstates is possible by choosing the macrostate that successfully classifies them all into a single grouping.

Thermodynamic equilibrium[link]

When energy transfer ceases from a system, this condition is referred to as thermodynamic equilibrium. Usually this condition implies the system and surroundings are at the same temperature so that heat no longer transfers between them. It also implies that external forces are balanced (volume does not change), and all chemical reactions within the system are complete. The timeline varies for these events depending on the system in question. A container of ice allowed to melt at room temperature takes hours, while in semiconductors the heat transfer that occurs in the device transition from an on to off state could be on the order of a few nanoseconds.

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Anderson, John D. (1984). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-001656-9. 
• John, James (1984). Gas Dynamics. Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-08014-6. 
• McPherson, William and Henderson, William (1917). An Elementary study of chemistry. 

Further reading[link]

• Philip Hill and Carl Peterson. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion: Second Edition Addison-Wesley, 1992. ISBN 0-201-14659-2
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Animated Gas Lab. Accessed February, 2008.
• Georgia State University. HyperPhysics. Accessed February, 2008.
• Antony Lewis WordWeb. Accessed February, 2008.
• Northwestern Michigan College The Gaseous State. Accessed February, 2008.

v t e States of matter Solid Liquid Gas / Vapor Plasma Low energy Bose–Einstein condensate · Fermionic condensate · Quantum Hall · Rydberg matter · Strange matter · Superfluid · Supersolid High energy Degenerate matter · QCD matter · Quark–gluon plasma  · Supercritical fluid Other states Colloid · Glass · Liquid crystal · Magnetically ordered (Antiferromagnet, Ferrimagnet, Ferromagnet) · String-net liquid · Superglass Transitions Boiling · Boiling point · Condensation · Critical line · Critical point · Crystallization · Deionization · Deposition · Evaporation · Flash evaporation · Freezing · Ionization · Lambda point · Melting · Melting point · Regelation · Saturated fluid · Sublimation · Supercooling · Triple point · Vaporization Quantities Enthalpy of fusion · Enthalpy of sublimation · Enthalpy of vaporization · Latent heat · Latent internal energy · Trouton's ratio · Volatility Concepts Binodal · Compressed fluid · Cooling curve · Equation of state · Leidenfrost effect · Mpemba effect · Order and disorder (physics) · Spinodal · Superconductivity · Superheated vapor · Superheating · Thermo-dielectric effect

vep:Gaz

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 2000

2000 (MM) was a leap year that started on a Saturday, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It was the 2000th year of the Common Era or the Anno Domini designation, and the last year of the 20th century and the 2nd millennium.

2000 was designated as:

• International Year for the Culture of Peace^[1]
• World Mathematical Year^[2]

The year 2000 was the first year of the 2000s decade. Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium, due to a tendencial way to group the years according to decimal values, as if year zero were counted. According to the Gregorian calendar this distinction falls to the year 2001, because the 1st century was retroactively said to start with year AD 1. Since the calendar has no year zero, its first millennium spans from years 1 to 1000, inclusively, and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000. (See more at Millennium.)

The year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns: fears that computers would not shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly. However, by the end of 1999, many companies had already converted to new, or upgraded their existing software. Some even obtained Y2K certification. As a result of massive effort, much of it mis-directed, relatively few problems occurred.

Events[link]

January[link]

• January 1 – New Zealand broadcasting on Chatham Island is watched worldwide to start millennium celebrations and the Year 2000 problem begins.
• January 3–January 10 – Israel and Syria hold inconclusive peace talks.
• January 5–January 8 – The 2000 al-Qaeda Summit of several high-level al-Qaeda members (including 2 9/11 American Airlines hijackers) is held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
• January 6 – The last natural Pyrenean Ibex is found dead, apparently killed by a falling tree.
• January 10 – America Online announces an agreement to purchase Time Warner for $162 billion (the largest-ever corporate merger).
• January 11
  • The armed wing of the Islamic Salvation Front concludes its negotiations with the government for an amnesty and disbands in Algeria (see Algerian Civil War#GIA destroyed, GSPC discontinues)
  • The trawler Solway Harvester sinks off the Isle of Man.^[3]
• January 14
  • A United Nations tribunal sentences 5 Bosnian Croats to up to 25 years in prison for the 1993 killing of over 100 Bosnian Muslims in a Bosnian village.^[4]
  • The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at 11,722.98 (at the peak of the Dot-com bubble).
• January 18 – The Tagish Lake meteorite impacts the Earth.
• January 24 – God's Army, a Karen militia group led by twins Johnny and Luther Htoo, takes 700 hostages at a Thai hospital near the Burmese border.
• January 30 – Kenya Airways Flight 431 crashes off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire into the Atlantic Ocean, killing 169.
• January 31
  • Alaska Airlines Flight 261 crashes off the California coast into the Pacific Ocean, killing 88.
  • Dr. Harold Shipman is found guilty of murdering 15 patients between 1995 and 1998 at Hyde, Greater Manchester, and sentenced to life imprisonment.

February[link]

• February 4 – German extortionist Klaus-Peter Sabotta is jailed for life for attempted murder and extortion, in connection with the sabotage of German railway lines.
• February 6 – Tarja Halonen is elected the first female president of Finland.
• February 7 – Stipe Mesic is elected president of Croatia.
• February 8 – Bob Collins' plane collides with that of a student pilot over Zion, Illinois.
• February 9 – Torrential rains in Africa lead to the worst flooding in Mozambique in 50 years, which lasts until March and kills 800 people.
• February 13 – The final original Peanuts comic strip is published, following the death of its creator, Charles M. Schulz.
• February 21 – UNESCO holds the inaugural celebration of International Mother Language Day.

March[link]

• March 1 – The Constitution of Finland rewritten.
• March 4 – The PlayStation 2 is released in Japan, and in North America several months later. It becomes the best-selling game console of all time.
• March 8 – Tokyo train disaster: A sideswipe collision of 2 Tokyo Metro trains kills 5 people.
• March 10 – The NASDAQ Composite Index reaches an all-time high of 5,048.^[5]
• March 12 – Pope John Paul II apologizes for the wrongdoings by members of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the ages.
• March 21
  • Pope John Paul II begins the first official visit by a Roman Catholic pontiff to Israel.
  • The U.S. Supreme Court rules the FDA lacks authority to regulate tobacco as an addictive drug, throwing out the Clinton Administration's main anti-smoking initiative
• March 26 – Vladimir Putin is elected President of Russia.
• March 26 – The Seattle Kingdome is demolished by implosion.
• March 27 – The Phillips explosion of 2000 kills 1 and injures 71 in Pasadena, Texas.

April[link]

• April 3 – United States v. Microsoft: Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust laws by keeping "an oppressive thumb" on its competitors.
• April 17 – Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin becomes Raja of Perlis.
• April 22 – In a predawn raid, federal agents seize 6-year old Elián González from his relatives' home in Miami, Florida and fly him to his Cuban father in Washington, DC, ending one of the most publicized custody battles in U.S. history.

May[link]

• May 1 – A new class of composite material is fabricated, which has a combination of physical properties never before seen in a natural or man-made material.^[6][7]
• May 3
  • In San Antonio, Texas, computer pioneer Datapoint files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
• May 4
  • After originating in the Philippines, the ILOVEYOU computer virus spreads quickly throughout the world.
  • An earthquake hits Banggai, Indonesia, leaving 54 dead.
• May 5
  • A rare conjunction of 7 celestial bodies (Sun, Moon, planets Mercury–Saturn) occurs during the New Moon.^[8]
• May 11
  • The billionth living person in India is born.^[9][10]
  • Effective date of Canada's first modern-day treaty – The Nisga'a Final Agreement
• May 12 – The Tate Modern Gallery opens in London.
• May 13
  • A fireworks factory disaster in Enschede, the Netherlands, kills 23.
  • Millennium Force opens at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio as the world's tallest and fastest roller coaster.
• May 16 – The Grand National Assembly of Turkey elects Ahmet Necdet Sezer as the tenth President of Turkey.
• May 17 – A bomb in Glorietta Mall in Makati City, Philippines injures 13.
• May 20 – Taiwanese (ROC) president Chen Shui-bian makes the Four Noes and One Without pledge to Taiwan.
• May 25 – Israel withdraws IDF forces from southern Lebanon after 22 years.

June[link]

• June 4 – An earthquake hits Bengkulu, Indonesia, leaving 94 dead.
• June 5 – 405 The Movie, the first short film widely distributed on the Internet, is released.
• June 13 – South Korean President Kim Dae Jung visits North Korea to participate in the first North-South presidential summit.
• June 17 – A centennial earthquake (6.5 on Richter scale) hits Iceland on its national day.
• June 21 – Section 28, a law preventing the promotion of homosexuality, is repealed by the Scottish Parliament.
• June 26 – A preliminary draft of genomes, as part of the Human Genome Project, is finished.
• June 28 – Elian Gonzalez returns to Cuba with his father, Juan Miguel Gonzalez, ending a protracted custody battle.
• June 30 – At the Roskilde Festival near Copenhagen, Denmark, 9 die and 26 are injured on a set while the rock group Pearl Jam performs.

July[link]

• July 2
  • France defeats Italy 2-1 after extra time in the final of the European Championships, becoming the first team to consecutively win the World Cup and European Championships.
  • Vicente Fox is elected President of Mexico, as candidate of the rightist PAN (National Action Party), ending 71 years of PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) rule.
• July 10
  • In southern Nigeria, a leaking petroleum pipeline explodes, killing about 250 villagers who were scavenging gasoline.
  • Bashar al-Assad is confirmed as Syria's leader in a national referendum.
• July 13–July 25 – Israel's prime minister Ehud Barak and PLO head Yasser Arafat meet at Camp David, but fail to reach an agreement.
• July 14 – A powerful solar flare, later named the Bastille Day event, causes a geomagnetic storm on Earth.
• July 18 – Alex Salmond resigns as the leader of the Scottish National Party.
• July 21–July 23 – G-8 Nations hold their 26th Annual Summit; issues include AIDS, the 'digital divide', and halving world poverty by 2015.
• July 22 – News of the World urges its readers to sign a petition for Sarah's Law, new legislation in response to the murder of Sarah Payne, which would give parents the right to know whether a convicted paedophile was living in their area.
• July 25 – Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde aircraft, crashes into a hotel in Gonesse just after takeoff from Paris, killing all 109 aboard and 4 in the hotel.
• July 30 – Venezuela's president Hugo Chávez is reelected with 59% of the vote.
• July 31-August 3 – The Republican National Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania nominates George W. Bush for U.S. President and Dick Cheney for Vice President.

August[link]

• August 3 – Rioting erupts on the Paulsgrove estate in Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, after more than 100 people besiege the home of a block of flats allegedly housing a convicted paedophile. This is the latest vigilante violence against suspected sex offenders since the beginning of the "naming and shaming" anti-paedophile campaign by the tabloid newspaper News of the World.
• August 8 – The Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley is raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor.
• August 12 – The Russian submarine Kursk sinks in the Barents Sea, resulting in the deaths of all 118 men on board.
• August 14 – Tsar Nicholas II and his family are canonized by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church.
• August 14 – Dora the Explorer, one of Nickelodeon's hottest shows, debuts.
• August 14–August 17 – The Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles nominates U.S. Vice President Al Gore for President and Senator Joe Lieberman for Vice President.
• August 23 – John Anthony Kaiser a Roman Catholic priest was murdered in Morendat, Kenya.
• August 27 – The Ostankino Tower fire in Moscow kills 3.

September[link]

• September 5 – Tuvalu joins the United Nations.
• September 6 – The last wholly Swedish-owned arms manufacturer, Bofors, is sold to American arms manufacturer United Defense.
• September 6–September 8 – World leaders attend the Millennium Summit at UN Headquarters.
• September 7–September 14 – The UK fuel protests take place, with refineries blockaded, and supply to the country's network of petrol stations halted.
• September 8
  • Albania officially joins the World Trade Organization.
  • United Nations Millennium Declaration is made in New York
• September 15–October 1 – The 2000 Summer Olympics are held in Sydney, Australia.
• September 16
  • Ukrainian journalist Georgiy Gongadze is last seen alive; this day is taken as the commemoration date of his death.
  • Peru's president Alberto Fujimori calls for new elections in which he will not run.
• September 26
  • The Greek ferry Express Samina sinks off the coast of the island of Paros; 80 out of a total of over 500 passengers perish in one of Greece's worst sea disasters.
  • Anti-globalization protests in Prague (some 15,000 protesters) turn violent during the IMF and World Bank summits.
• September 28 – Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visits the Temple Mount, protected by a several-hundred-strong Israeli police force. Palestinian riots erupt, leading to a full-fledged armed uprising (called the Al-Aqsa Intifada by sympathizers and the Oslo War by opponents).
• September 29 – The Long Kesh prison in Northern Ireland is closed.

October[link]

• October 1 – The 2000 Summer Olympics close in Sydney, Australia.
• October 5 – President Slobodan Milošević leaves office after widespread demonstrations throughout Serbia.
• October 6 – The last Mini is produced in Longbridge.
• October 11 – 250 million US gallons (950,000 m³) of coal sludge spill in Martin County, Kentucky (considered a greater environmental disaster than the Exxon Valdez oil spill).
• October 12 – In Aden, Yemen, USS Cole is badly damaged by two Al-Qaeda suicide bombers, who place a small boat laden with explosives alongside the United States Navy destroyer, killing 17 crew members and wounding at least 39.
• October 21 – Fifteen Arab leaders convene in Cairo, Egypt, for their first summit in 4 years; the Libyan delegation walks out, angry over signs the summit will stop short of calling for breaking ties with Israel.
• October 22 – The Mainichi Shinbun newspaper exposes Japanese archeologist Shinichi Fujimura as a fraud; Japanese archaeologists had based their treatises on his findings.
• October 23 – Madeleine Albright holds talks with North Korean dictator Kim Jong Il.
• October 26 – Pakistani authorities announce that their police have found an apparently ancient mummy of a Persian princess in the province of Balochistan. Iran, Pakistan and the Taliban all claim the mummy until Pakistan announces it is a modern-day fake on April 17, 2001.
• October 27 – Pacific Islands Forum (PIF).
• October 30 – This is the final date during which there is no human presence in space; on October 31, Soyuz TM-31 launches, carrying the first resident crew to the International Space Station. The ISS has been continuously crewed since.
• October 31 – Singapore Airlines Flight 006 collides with construction equipment in the Chiang Kai Shek International Airport, resulting in 83 deaths.

November[link]

• November – Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraq rejects new U.N. Security Council weapons inspections proposals.
• November 2 – The first resident crew enters the International Space Station.
• November 3 – Widespread flooding occurs throughout England and Wales after days of heavy rain.
• November 7:
  • In London, a criminal gang raids the Millennium Dome to steal the Millennium Star diamond, but police surveillance catches them in the act.
  • Hillary Rodham Clinton is elected to the United States Senate, becoming the first First Lady of the United States to win public office.
• November 11 – Kaprun disaster, Austria: A funicular fire in an Alpine tunnel kills 155 skiers and snowboarders.
• November 15 – A new Indian state called Jharkhand is formed, carving out the South Chhota Nagpur area from Bihar in India.
• November 16 – Bill Clinton becomes the first sitting U.S. President to visit Vietnam.
• November 17
  • A catastrophic landslide in Log pod Mangartom, Slovenia, kills 7, and causes millions of SIT of damage. It is one of the worst catastrophes in Slovenia in the past 100 years.
  • Alberto Fujimori is removed from office as president of Peru.
• November 27 – Jean Chrétien is re-elected as Prime Minister of Canada, as the Liberal Party of Canada increases its majority in the House of Commons of Canada.
• November 28 – Ukrainian politician Oleksander Moroz touches off the Cassette Scandal by publicly accusing President Leonid Kuchma of involvement in the murder of journalist Georgiy Gongadze.

December[link]

• December 1 – Vicente Fox takes office as President of Mexico.
• December 13 – Bush v. Gore: The U.S. Supreme Court stops the Florida presidential recount, effectively giving the state, and the Presidency, to George W. Bush.
• December 15
  • Disney's Paradise Pier Hotel opens at the Disneyland Resort.
  • The third and final reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is shut down and the station is shut down completely.
• December 24 – Christmas Eve 2000 Indonesia bombings: 18 people are killed in multiple Islamist bomb attacks on churches across Indonesia.
• December 25 – A shopping center fire at Luoyang, Henan, China, kills 309.
• December 30 – Rizal Day bombings: A series of bombs explode in various places in Metro Manila, Philippines, within a span of a few hours, killing 22 and injuring about 100.
• December 31 – The Millennium Dome closes its doors one year to the day of its opening.

World population[link]

Births[link]

• January 4 – Rhiannon Leigh Wryn, American actress
• January 8 – Noah Cyrus, American actress
• April 9 – Jackie Evancho, American soprano
• April 11 – Morgan Lily, American Actress
• August 13 – Piper Reese, American reporter
• September 28 – Frankie Jonas, American actor
• October 31 – Willow Smith, American actress and singer
• November 10 – Mackenzie Foy, American model and actress
• November 20 – Connie Talbot, British singer

Deaths[link]

January[link]

Hedy Lamarr

• January 2 – Patrick O'Brian, English writer (b. 1914)
• January 15 – Željko Ražnatović, Serbian mobster and paramilitary leader (b. 1952)
• January 18 – Frances Drake, American actress (b. 1912)
• January 19
  • Bettino Craxi, Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1934)
  • Hedy Lamarr, Austrian actress (b. 1913)

February[link]

Charles M. Schulz

Friedensreich Hundertwasser

• February 5
  • Claude Autant-Lara, French film director (b. 1901)
  • Ward Cornell, Canadian radio/TV broadcaster & educator (b. 1924)
• February 7
  • Doug Henning, Canadian magician (b. 1947)
  • Big Pun, American rapper (b. 1971)
• February 8
  • Bob Collins, American Broadcaster (b. 1942)
  • Sid Abel, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1918)
  • Derrick Thomas, American football player (b. 1967)
• February 9 – Beau Jack, American boxer (b. 1921)
• February 10 – Jim Varney, American actor noted for his character, Ernest P. Worrell. (b. 1949)
• February 11 – Roger Vadim, French film director and producer (b. 1928)
• February 12
  • Tom Landry, American football coach (b. 1924)
  • Charles M. Schulz, American comic strip artist (Peanuts) (b. 1922)
  • Oliver, American pop singer (b. 1945)
  • Screamin' Jay Hawkins, American rock singer and performer (b. 1929)
• February 13 – Anders Aalborg, Canadian politician (b. 1914)
• February 19 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, artist (b. 1928)
• February 23
  • Sir Stanley Matthews, English footballer (b. 1915)
  • Ofra Haza, Israeli singer (b. 1957)

March[link]

Ian Dury

• March 3 – Toni Ortelli, Italian composer and alpinist (b. 1904)
• March 7 – Charles Gray, English actor (b. 1928)
• March 11 – Alfred Schwarzmann, German Olympic gymnast (b. 1912)
• March 27 – Ian Dury, English singer, songwriter (b. 1942)
• March 28 – Anthony Powell, British author (b. 1905)
• March 30 – Rudolf Kirchschlager, former President of Austria (b. 1915)

April[link]

Habib Bourguiba

• April 2 – Tommaso Buscetta, Sicilian mafioso informant (b. 1928)
• April 3 – Terence McKenna, Writer, Philosopher, Ethnobotanist and Shaman (b. 1946)
• April 4 – Derek Allhusen, British equestrian (b. 1914)
• April 5 – Lee Petty, American race car driver (b. 1914)
• April 6 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903)
• April 10 – Rabah Bitat, former President of Algeria (b. 1925)
• April 11 – Diana Darvey, British actress, singer and dancer (b. 1945)
• April 14 – Phil Katz, American computer programmer (b. 1962)
• April 15 – Edward Gorey, American writer and illustrator (b. 1925)
• April 25 – David Merrick, American stage producer (b. 1911)
• April 29 – Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese politician, Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1906)

May[link]

Keizō Obuchi

• May 1
  • Steve Reeves, American actor and bodybuilder (b. 1926)
  • Jukka Tapanimäki, Finnish game programmer (b. 1961)
• May 7 – Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., American actor (b. 1909)
• May 8 – Maria Do Carmo Geronimo, The last Brazilian slave and claimed to be 129 before she died (b. 1871)
• May 10 – Craig Stevens, American actor (b. 1918)
• May 11 – René Muñoz, Cuban actor, screenwriter of telenovelas and the cinema of Mexico (b. 1938)
• May 12 – Adam Petty, British Racecar Driver (b.1980)
• May 13 – Tomomi Tsuruta, Former Japanese professional wrestler, better known as Jumbo Tsuruta (b. 1951)
• May 14 – Keizō Obuchi, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1937)
• May 20 – Edward Bernds, American director (b. 1905)
• May 21
  • Dame Barbara Cartland, English novelist (b. 1901)
  • Sir John Gielgud, English actor (b. 1904)
• May 27
  • Maurice Richard, Canadian hockey player (b. 1921)
  • Kazimierz Leski, Polish engineer, fighter pilot, and Home Army's intelligence and counter-intelligence officer (b. 1912)
• May 30 – Doris Hare, English actress, well known for her role in the 1970s comedy, On the Buses (b. 1905)
• May 31 – Tito Puente, American jazz musician (b. 1923)

June[link]

Hafez al-Assad

• June 10
  • Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria (b. 1930)
  • Frank Patterson, Irish tenor (b. 1938)
• June 14 – Robert Trent Jones, English-born golf course designer (b. 1906)
• June 16 – Empress Kōjun of Japan (b. 1903)
• June 17 – Ismail Mahomed, South African and Namibian Chief Justice (b. 1931)
• June 19 – Noboru Takeshita, former Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1924)
• June 21 – Alan Hovhaness, American composer (b. 1911)
• June 24 – David Tomlinson, English actor (b. 1917)
• June 27 – Pierre Pflimlin, French Politician (b. 1907)
• June 29 – Vittorio Gassman, Italian actor (b. 1922)

July[link]

Walter Matthau

• July 1 – Walter Matthau, American actor (b. 1920)
• July 7 – James C. Quayle, American newspaper publisher (b. 1921)
• July 8 – FM-2030, Transhumanist philosopher (b. 1930)
• July 10
  • Vakkom Majeed, Indian Freedom fighter, Travancore-Cochin Legislative member (b. 1909)
  • Denis O'Conor Don, hereditary chief of the O'Conor Don sept of Ireland (b. 1912)
• July 11 – Robert Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1921)
• July 12 – Charles Merritt, Canadian Army officer and recipient of the Victoria Cross during World War II (b. 1908)
• July 21 – Yosef Qafiḥ, Israeli rabbiYemenite Jewish (b. 1917)
• July 28 – Abraham Pais, Dutch-born American physicist (b. 1918)
• July 29 – René Favaloro, Argentinian cardiologist who created the technique for coronary bypass surgery (b. 1923)

August[link]

Carl Barks

• August 5
  • Sir Alec Guinness, English actor and writer (b. 1914)
  • Otto Buchsbaum, writer and ecological activist (b. 1920)
• August 6 – Sir Robin Day, British political broadcaster (b. 1923)
• August 9 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-born economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)
• August 12
  • Loretta Young, American actress (b. 1913)
  • Dave Edwards, American musician (b. 1941)
• August 19 – Bineshwar Brahma, Bodo activist and leader (b. 1946)
• August 21 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian politician (b. 1930)
• August 25 – Carl Barks, American cartoonist (b. 1901)
• August 26 – Bunny Austin, English tennis player (b. 1906)

September[link]

Pierre Trudeau

• September 2
  • Elvera Sanchez, American dancer (b. 1905)
  • Curt Siodmak, American novelist and screenwriter (b. 1902)
• September 14 – Beah Richards, American actress (b. 1920)
• September 16 – Georgiy Gongadze, Ukrainian journalist (b. 1969)
• September 19 – Anthony Robert Klitz, British artist (b 1917)
• September 22 – Saburō Sakai, Japanese fighter ace (b. 1916)
• September 25 – R. S. Thomas, Welsh poet (b. 1913)
• September 26 – Richard Mulligan, American actor (b. 1932)
• September 27 – Sammy Luftspring, Canadian boxer (b. 1916)
• September 28
  • Peter Gennaro, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1919)
  • Pierre Trudeau, Former Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1919)

October[link]

Steve Allen

• October 3 – Benjamin Orr, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and singer for the band The Cars (b. 1947)
• October 4 – Michael Smith, English-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1932)
• October 6 – Richard Farnsworth, American actor (b. 1920)
• October 8 – Sheila Holland (Sheila Coates, Charlotte Lamb, Sheila Lancaster, Victoria Wolf, Laura Hardy), English writer (b. 1937)
• October 9 – Patrick Anthony Porteous, Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross (b. 1918)
• October 13
  • Jean Peters, American actress (b. 1926)
  • Tony Roper, NASCAR driver (b. 1964)
• October 15 – Konrad Emil Bloch, German-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1912)
• October 18 – Julie London, American singer and actress (b. 1926)
• October 21 – Reginald Kray, leading figure in organised crime in London, UK (b. 1933)
• October 23 – Rodney Anoa'i, American wrestler known as Yokozuna (b. 1966)
• October 27 – Walter Berry, Austrian bass-baritone (b. 1929)
• October 29 – Andújar Cedeño, Dominican Major League Baseball player for the Houston Astros (b. 1969)
• October 30 – Steve Allen, American comedian, composer, talk show host, and author (b. 1921)
• October 31 – Ring Lardner, Jr., American screenwriter, one of the Hollywood Ten (b. 1915)

November[link]

Ingrid of Sweden

• November 2 – Eva Morris, last surviving person documented as born in 1885 (b. 1885)
• November 5
  • David Brower, American environmental activist (b. 1912)
  • Roger Peyrefitte, French writer and diplomat (b. 1907)
• November 6 – L. Sprague de Camp, American writer (b. 1907)
• November 7
  • C Subramaniam, Indian politician (b. 1910)
  • Ingrid of Sweden, Queen consort of Frederick IX of Denmark (b. 1910)
• November 11 – Hugh Paddick, British actor (b. 1915)
• November 22
  • Sir Cyril Astley Clarke, British physician, geneticist and entomologist, former President of the Royal College of Physicians (b. 1907)
  • Christian Marquand, French actor and director (b. 1927)

December[link]

• December 2 – Gail Fisher, American actress (b. 1935)
• December 3 – Gwendolyn Brooks, African American writer (b. 1917)
• December 10
  • Paul Avery, American journalist (b. 1934)
  • Marie Windsor, American actress (b. 1919)
• December 19 – Roebuck "Pops" Staples, patriarch of The Staple Singers (b. 1914)
• December 18 – Kirsty MacColl, English singer (b. 1959)
• December 23
  • Billy Barty, American actor (b. 1924)
  • Victor Borge, Danish-born comedian and pianist (b. 1909)
• December 26 – Jason Robards, American actor (b. 1922)
• December 30 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter (b. 1909)

Nobel Prizes[link]

• Chemistry – Alan J. Heeger, Alan MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa
• Economics – James Heckman, Daniel McFadden
• Literature – Gao Xingjian
• Peace – Kim Dae Jung
• Physics – Zhores Ivanovich Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, Jack Kilby
• Physiology or Medicine – Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, Eric R. Kandel

Templeton Prize[link]

• Freeman Dyson

External links[link]

2000s portal

• 2000 Coin Pictures

References[link]

Jools Holland
Holland at the British Academy Television Awards 2009
Background information
Birth name	Julian Miles Holland
Born	(1958-01-24) 24 January 1958 (age 54) Blackheath, London, England
Genres	Boogie-woogie, jazz, blues, R&B
Occupations	Musician, composer, television presenter, bandleader
Instruments	Piano, keyboard, guitar
Years active	1974–present
Associated acts	Squeeze Rhythm & Blues Orchestra
Website	Official site

Julian Miles "Jools" Holland OBE, DL (born 24 January 1958) is an English pianist, bandleader, singer, composer, and television presenter. He was a founder of the band Squeeze (1974-1980 & 1985-1990) and his work has involved him with many artists including Sting, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, David Gilmour, Magazine and Bono.

Holland is a published author and appears on television shows besides his own and contributes to radio shows. In 2004, he collaborated with Tom Jones on an album of traditional R&B music. He currently hosts Later... with Jools Holland, a music-based show aired on BBC2, on which his annual show Hootenanny, is based.^[1]